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Voltaire and rousseau - opioni (Click to select text)
VOLTAIRE vs. ROUSSEAU: OPINIONS ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The French revolutionary cry for "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" reverberates throughout the ghostly meeting hall where Voltaire and Rousseau sit down to discuss issues such as the rights of man and the role of government. They argue violently on some topics, such as the definition of free will and general will, while concurring on ideas such as the importance of reasoning and logic in society. The discussion divides the period into three main sections; the initial revolts and uprising of the middle class, the radical time of Robespierre and the Republic of Virtue, and the rise and fall of Napoleon in France. In his opening remarks, Voltaire notes that the concept of general will is lost to the majority of the population, and therefore allows those in power to abuse it and remain unchecked. He states that the system of government that was found by the end of 1810 was not successful in fulfilling the goals that the revolution strived for. Rather than give citizens rights and freedoms, the state of the nation was quite similar to that with which it started. From the divine ruler Louis XIV to Napoleon, French citizens were still under an absolute ruler. At that moment, Rousseau interrupts by saying that the general will, while representing the people, must be controlled by the state in order to ensure that the needs of all the people are met. Deciding to take turns speaking to allow for a proper debate, Voltaire begins. Voltaire strived to find good men in a good society, and thought that there was a strong relation between a government and the welfare of its people. He attacked those who used prejudice, superstition, intolerance, and injustice and looked for leaders who would rule by reason and justice instead. In his opinion, a leader must give the individual man his rights while at the same time ruling for the common good of the people. This did not mean he supported a democratic form of government. Rather he gave credence to absolute rulers (or absolute monarchy), in which he felt more productive government could be found. In a democracy, he observed that it is very difficult to come to an agreement on acceptable changes or actions in government. For example, in order for democracy to work, authority should be questioned, but only by using reason and logic. Voltaire saw the virtues of reason, goodness, and a general concern for others. He felt that virtue was defined as those actions that helped mankind or benefited others in some way. Voltaire strongly advocated freedom of thought and tolerance. He argued that all men are equal in basic (animal) functions, but only men who use rationality to understand each other can be considered equal. Although he thought that man is basically good, he recognized that man liked wealth, (money is king of the state), domination, and pleasure. And that people usually went to excesses and often exaggerated situations. Voltaire's criticism of society included the treatment and behaviour of the poor. He observed that the poor masses were often too busy trying to survive to notice their terrible state of living. This was one important distinction he made between the common people and those who were self-reliant and capable of thinking. Therefore, Voltaire felt it was unreasonable to ask for a social conscience, (general will), from a mass which lacked a personal conscience. Voltaire outlined important issues in the governing of the masses. Referring to civil laws, he felt that punishments should be useful to society. Taxes should be made proportional to the ability of a man to pay it. Laws, he noticed, often changed to suit the needs of society. In his view of the R.C.C., Voltaire saw all those characteristics that he disliked: superstition, prejudice, intolerance, and injustice. He criticized organized religion because it did not help people to think clearly for themselves. Voltaire was a deist; one who believes that God created the universe but does not control it. In the French Revolution, the struggle for freedom, (liberty) was a long-term goal. Voltaire pointed out that to be free or liberated meant to be able to, or the power to act. At the same time, the term free will meant to wish. Since these terms were often interchanged, their meanings were blurred and unclear. According to the Age of Reason, nothing happens without a cause. So Voltaire might have reasoned that such violent events as the storming of the Bastille and the slaughter of August 4th, were lessons to teach French citizens the uselessness and cruelty of extreme violence. Voltaire realized that the concept of general will was a useless means of government, until the masses understood it. The masses of France were illiterate and therefore general will fell on deaf ears. Rousseau angered by Voltaire's remark, jumped in. First he introduced the idea of general will in his Social Contract. The general will is an agreement amongst the citizens of a nation, but excluding the leader, in which they agree to keep the common good. Here the phrase "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" came into use. These were supposed to be the main goals of the people. In his theory, the government is only a tool to represent the people's desires. Therefore, if the government is not keeping its word, then it should be replaced immediately. Obviously, then, Rousseau supported the system of democracy. In this state of government, man is basically "forced to be free". This refers to general will, and the question of how to enforce such an idea soon arises. It is unlikely that the entire mass of people will come to an agreement on their goals. Man is basically selfish, so that virtue comes only from society. With these beliefs, such things as a Machiavellian form of rule can be justified. The ruler knows what actions to take for the good of its people because the general will is sovereign. If the leader does whatever is necessary for the greater social good, than the end justifies the means and actions such as the Reign of Terror of Robespierre are permissible. In an atmosphere where suspicion of treason easily leads to death; where disobedience is punished with jail or death, people cannot be free to make their own choices or decisions. The general will makes leaders into leviathans who dictate the needs and desires of the state. At the same time that Rousseau stated the general will is sovereign, he also noted that the people are governed by public opinion. Therefore, to control the people, the state should use propaganda. Rousseau wrote: "We are born weak, we need strength; we are born lacking everything, we need aid; we are born stupid, we need judgement." Yet he also thought that man is basically good. But a problem for the individual man was the lack of power. Since civil society makes men corrupt, Rousseau advocated using logic rather than emotions to make moral decisions in public affairs. Virtue came from the freedom of men to make decisions for the good of the community. The general will meant giving up individual rights for the betterment of the collective group. Therefore civil liberties were an oxymoron, since civilized society needed laws and rules to function, while liberty was the freedom to act as one pleased. It is therefore impossible to reconcile the natural man with the citizen. So it was responsibility of the government to attain freedom, equality, and justice for all its citizens. Even if the will of the majority was not correct, the state must remember what is good for the entire group and not separate politics from morality. Although Voltaire and Rousseau had different ideas of an effective form of government, both believed that man was basically good and deserved the rights of freedom, equality and just rule. As long as men used rationality to make decisions, they could have political power and economic freedom, as well as liberty to take actions without infringing on others rights.
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